RCAAP Repository

The effect of carotenoid pigments on the egg yolk color was studied in this paper. Three types of maize of known genetical constitution were used: Cateto, with deep orange endosperm; Armour, with yellow-orange endosperm and Cristal, with white endosperm. The carotenoid pigments of the two colored maizes were analysed: the total and both the active parts in relation to vitamin A and the zeaxanthin part showed to be practically double in the deep orange corn. The color of the yolk was orange when the ration had the deep orange corn and yellow in the case of the yellow-orange corn. The increase in shade was proportional to the amount of pigment present in the grains. If green feeds is added to the ration with white corn, the yolk becomes yellow or orange, depending on the amount of green given to the chickens. The practical importance of controlling the color of the yolk was emphasized.

The author reports in this paper the results obtained in one experiment with wet an dry mash on the growing of chickens. The experiment started with two groups of 50 Sussex bred each, one receiving dry and other wet mash. The observations were continued in another four groups of 25 chickens each, two of Rhod Island Red bred and two of Sussex bred, both receiving dry and wet mash. The chickens were weight every 10 days and the differences obtained proved to be not significant statistically. Both dry and wet mash were equally good but wet mash is much more dificult to give to the chickkens than the dry one.

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1 - Colour, by itself, does not constitute a solid ground for judging of the age of a brandy because the more or less pronounced colour it acquires through aging can also be obtained by the addition of oack essence to newly distilled brandy. 2 - Urder the same conditions, colour intensity of a brandy wiU depend upon the nature of the wood and the condition of the storage. 3 - In accordance with the experimental results obtained by the present writers it rests no doubt that fermentation facility ferment resistence, produce and quality of the brendy all are factors depending upon the variety of the sugar cane. In addition, the authors presume that the variety of sugar cane has also influence upon the alteration of composition of the brandy submitted to aging. 4 - All aging phenomena of the brandy are accompanied by volume decreasing, what happens in a slow and continuous manner depending upon storage and environment conditions 5 - During brandy aging the alcoholic degree is greatly af- fected by evaporation, increasing or decreasing in accordance to the hygrometric state of the air and the teriperature in the place where the tuns are stored. 6 - The specific weight of the brandy is inversely proportio- nal to its alcoholic degree, but directly proportional to the extracts since the latter indicates the amount of dissolved residues. 7 - Brandy which shows high specific weight together with high alcoholic degree cannot be considered as aged. It may, however, be takens for brandy artificially coloved in order to conceal its actual age. 8 - The amount of extracts increases with aging, since it is the result of the solvent action of the brandy upon the soluble extractive substances of the wood. Notwithstanding that the extract, considered alone, has no value in determining the age of a brandy, since nothing easier is ohan to nake it change artificially. 9 -During aging the brandy get acidity in physiological as well as in physical way, but never by the action of microorganisms. 10 - The estturs produced during aging by the action of acids upon alcohols are the mean factors of the savour (bouquet) of a brandy and therefore every thing shall be done tor fhr estherification of a preserved brandy being not limited. 11 - Aeration increases esther formation, reduces the aging- time and turn better the taste qualities of the brandy. 12 - Due to the great proportion of high alcohols ordinarily found in the brandy, their analytical discrimination will be greatly important. 13 - The high alcohols are not responsable for the disastrous consequences of the alcoholism, but the high percentage of uthyl alcohol present in the brandy. 14 - The aldehydes appear always in high rate in the brazilian brandys in consequence of some intermediary products of the oxydation of the alcohols being left in the brandys during aging. 15 - The age has little or no influence on the quantity of phurphurol present in a brandy whose amount varies greatly the manner in which the wines to be distilled are treated. Wines centrifugalized or filtered before distillation always give rise to brandys poorer in phurphurol as compared with those distilled without these treatments. 16 - Though greatly variable, brandys of good qualities generally show a high residues coefficient, never under 200 mmg 17 - Lusson - Rocques oxydation coefficient cannot be indis- criminately applied to any brandy class, being, on the contrary, specifically destined to cognacs.

The characters naked neck and black plumage proved to be due to single genes in a group of chicks growing at the Poultry Department of "Luiz de Queiroz" School of Agriculture, Piracicaba, Brasil. The two characters segregate independently and the animals with known genetical constitution will be used in the formation of a local breed.

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Three species of Scorpions beloging to two different families were studied cytologically: a) Tityus mattogrossensis Borelli (Fam. Buthidae), - This species presents spermatogonia provided with 20 short chromosomes which orient at metaphase with their axis parallelly to the plane of the equator and move toward the poles without changing this position, from the stage pachytene to metaphase the bivalents become, as in Tityus bahiensis, progressivery shorter and thicker, without showing that chiasmata occured at any time. The paired chromosomes never open themselves, out to form loops as in orthodox meioses. As in Tityus bahiensis the bivalents are inserted In the spindle before reaching their maxim contraction. No diakinesis has been observed. The primary spermatocyte metaphases are provided, with 10 pairs of chromosones, two of which are larger and two smaller than the rest. The bivalents orient as in Tityus bahiensis with their length in the plane of the equator and separate parallelly. Spindle fibres are seen alongst their entire body. While, in Tityus bahiensis the ends of the chromosomes are pronouncedly turned to opposite poles at metaphase, nothing like this was observed in the present species. Only late in anaphase the chromosomes of Tityus mattogrossensis show a bending to the poles. The secondary spermatocytes present 10 short chromosomes, two being larger than, the others. Here, on the contrary, the chromosomes are strongly curved toward the poles since the beginning of anaphase. Some chromosomal anomalies have been noticed. Primary spermatocytes with 14 bivalents, some of which representing probably free fragments, were observed. Primary spermatocytes with 8 bivalents and one cross of 4 chromosomes were interpreted as resulting from breakages followed by translocations Primary spermatocytes with 9 bivalents, one of which being much longer than the longst of the normal plates, show that fusion by the extremities of two non homologous chromosomes on the onde side, and of their respective homologous in the same way on tre other, have occured. Orientation of bivalents with their body parallelly to the spindle axis and anaphasic bridges have been encountered. All in all points to the conclusion that the chromosomes of Tityus mattogrossesis, like those of Tityus bahiensia are provided with one kinetochore at each end. Ananteris balzani Thorell - (Fam. Buthidae). - This species which belongs to the same family as Tityus, is provided with 12 chromosomes (diploid). These studied in embryonic tissues, showed the same behavior as the somatic chromosomes of Tityus bahiensis. Bothrirus sp. (Bothriuridae). - Only spermatogonia were found in the testis, of the single male hitherto investigated. The chromosomes, in number of 36, are of different sizes but small and provided, as ordinarily, with a single kinetochore. They behave therefore in an orthodox manner in mitosis.

Having had the opportunity of studying a male of the species Isometrus maculatus De Qeer (Scorplones, Buthidae) the author was able to observe one of the most interesting anomalies hitherto met with in his investigations on Scorpions. This anomaly consisted in the formation by the primary spermatocyte metaphase chromosomes of a complex group of eight elements, and two independent pairs. As it is clear, the octovalent group resulted from tranlocations involving the members of four chromosome pairs. Since aside the compound group two independent bivalents were always present, 12 was estabilished as representing the diploid chromosome number of the individual, what was soon confirmed by the counts in the spermatogonia. This peculiar behavior of the chromosomes of the primary spermatocytes represents the habitual condition in the studied individual, since it was found everywhere in the whole testis. Better than any description, the figures in this, paper show what was observed. Notwithstanding the complications which may occur at anaphase, separation of the chromosomes goes normally, each pole receiving four chromosomes from the group and two from the free bivalents. Secondary spermatocytes are thus provided with six monovalents. Though not found, we may believe in the existence of secondary spermatocytes with more or lesse than six chromosomes, because it seems highly probable that lhe chromosomes of the complex may now and then passe to the wrong pole 'n consequence of an incorrect orientation. Bridge vestiges suggest that chromosomes may sometimes break. The spermatogonia have 12 short chromosomes, which bend to the poles at anaphase. The chromosomes of the present species approach, in shape and behavior, those of Tityus mattogrossensis.

A natural chromosomal race of Tityus babiensis (Scorpiones Buthidae) is described in the present paper. Five males and seven females received from St. Joaquim, State of S. Paulo, gave the following interesting results: All the spermatogonia of the five males were provided with 9 chromosomes of different sizes. All primary spermatocytes showed at metaphase one independent bivalent of normal shape and a complex group formed by 7 chromosomes which have exchanged parts. Some of the chromosomes associated in the complex group, to Judge by their behavior, were composed of fragments of three different chromosomes, being thus paired with three other members of the compound group. The manner in which all the 7 components of the group have paired with each other showed to be very constant. They gave always origin to a double-cross configuration, the longst branch of which being formed by a long chromosome paired with two components of the group and with a third chromosome that did not belong to the group. The chromosomes of the independent bivalent separate regularly, going to different poles. From the 7 elements of the compound group, 4 go to one pole and 3 to the opposite one. Consequently, secondary spermatocytes with 4 and 5 chromosomes are produced. The females, so far as it can be inferred from the study of the follicular cells of the ovariuterus, have 10 chromosomes. These females are, therefore, considered as being monogametic, that is, as producing eggs with 5 chromosomes. A sex-determining mechanism arose in this manner, the spermatozoa with 5 chromosomes giving origin to females and those with 4 to males. The fact that the sex chromosome is one of the elements taking part in the formation of the group, seems highly interesting to the author. Tetraploid cysts have been occasionally found in the testis. In one individual the chromosomes of the tetraploid primary spermatocytes behaved as expected, forming a group of 14 elements, and two independent pairs or a tetravalent group In another individual, the chromosomes of the tetraploid cells have formed two independent groups of 7, and two independent pairs, as if both chromosomal sets were by their turn entirely independent frcm one another. This fact is certainly not devoid of special interest. The males as well as the females studied in this paper differed in nothing from the typical members of the species. The unique differential character of the new race is found in the umber and behavior of its chromosomes. It is highly remarkable that the occurrences which have transformed the 6 chromosomes normally present in the species into a new set of 9 elements, 7 of which have been profoun- dly altered in their structure, do not show any influence on the morphology of the organism. This fact, together with those found in the salivary-chromosomes races of Drosophila and Sciara. compromises strongly the genetical concept of position effects.

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Lutosa brasiliensis, an Orthopteran Tettigonioidean belonging to the family Stenopelmatidae is referred to in this paper The spermatogonia are provided with 15 chromosomes, that is, 7 pairs of autosomes and a single sex chromosome. One pair of autosomes is much larger than the rest, two pairs are of median sized elements, and four pairs are of small ones. The daughter sex chromosomes show at anaphase great difficulty in reaching the poles, being left for a long while in the region of the equator where they are seen stretched one after the other on the same line or lying side by side in different positions. When the spermatogonium divides each daughter cell gets passively its sex chromosome. Though slowly, the sex chromosome finishes by beins enclosed in the nucleus. Its behavior may be attributed to a very weak kinetic activity of the centromere. In view of se pronouced an inertness of the sex chromosomes, two things may be expected : primary spermatocyte nuclei with two sex chromosomes, and primary spermatocytes with the sex chromosome lying outside the nucleus. Both situations have been discovered. The latter, together with the delay of the spermatogonial sex chromosome in reaching the poles suggested to the anther the mechanism which might have given origin to the cases in which the sex chromosome normally does not enter the nucleus to rejoin the autosomes, remaning outside in its own nucleus. It may well be supposed that accidents like that found in the present individual have turned to be a normal event in the course of the evolution of some species. Trie primary spermatocytes are provided with chromatoid bodies which remain visible all over the whole history of the cells and pass to one of the resulting secondary spermatocytes, the larger of them being found later in the area occupied by the tails of the spermatozoa. No relation of these bodies to nucleoli con?d be established. Pachytene and diplotene nuclei are normal Metaphase nuclei show 7 autosomal tetrads, one of which being much larger than the rest. At this stage the chromosomes have a pronounced tendency to form clumps. Even when they are separated from each other they generally appear competed by chromosomal substance. The sex chromosome Hes always in one of the poles, being enclosed in the nucleus formed there. The stickness of the chromosomes can also be noted at anaphase. Telophase chromosomes distend them- selves for giving origin to secondary spermatocyte nuclei in a state comparable to a beginning prophase. As the secondary spermatocytes approach metaphase the autosomes appear entirely divided except at the kinetochore where the chromatids remain united. In the division of the secondary spermatocytes nothing else merits special reference.

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The main object of the present paper consists in giving formulas and methods which enable us to determine the minimum number of repetitions or of individuals necessary to garantee some extent the success of an experiment. The theoretical basis of all processes consists essentially in the following. Knowing the frequency of the desired p and of the non desired ovents q we may calculate the frequency of all possi- ble combinations, to be expected in n repetitions, by expanding the binomium (p-+q)n. Determining which of these combinations we want to avoid we calculate their total frequency, selecting the value of the exponent n of the binomium in such a way that this total frequency is equal or smaller than the accepted limit of precision n/pª{ 1/n1 (q/p)n + 1/(n-1)| (q/p)n-1 + 1/ 2!(n-2)| (q/p)n-2 + 1/3(n-3) (q/p)n-3... < Plim - -(1b) There does not exist an absolute limit of precision since its value depends not only upon psychological factors in our judgement, but is at the same sime a function of the number of repetitions For this reasen y have proposed (1,56) two relative values, one equal to 1-5n as the lowest value of probability and the other equal to 1-10n as the highest value of improbability, leaving between them what may be called the "region of doubt However these formulas cannot be applied in our case since this number n is just the unknown quantity. Thus we have to use, instead of the more exact values of these two formulas, the conventional limits of P.lim equal to 0,05 (Precision 5%), equal to 0,01 (Precision 1%, and to 0,001 (Precision P, 1%). The binominal formula as explained above (cf. formula 1, pg. 85), however is of rather limited applicability owing to the excessive calculus necessary, and we have thus to procure approximations as substitutes. We may use, without loss of precision, the following approximations: a) The normal or Gaussean distribution when the expected frequency p has any value between 0,1 and 0,9, and when n is at least superior to ten. b) The Poisson distribution when the expected frequecy p is smaller than 0,1. Tables V to VII show for some special cases that these approximations are very satisfactory. The praticai solution of the following problems, stated in the introduction can now be given: A) What is the minimum number of repititions necessary in order to avoid that any one of a treatments, varieties etc. may be accidentally always the best, on the best and second best, or the first, second, and third best or finally one of the n beat treatments, varieties etc. Using the first term of the binomium, we have the following equation for n: n = log Riim / log (m:) = log Riim / log.m - log a --------------(5) B) What is the minimun number of individuals necessary in 01der that a ceratin type, expected with the frequency p, may appaer at least in one, two, three or a=m+1 individuals. 1) For p between 0,1 and 0,9 and using the Gaussean approximation we have: on - ó. p (1-p) n - a -1.m b= &#948;. 1-p /p e c = m/p } -------------------(7) n = b + b² + 4 c/ 2 n´ = 1/p n cor = n + n' ---------- (8) We have to use the correction n' when p has a value between 0,25 and 0,75. The greek letters delta represents in the present esse the unilateral limits of the Gaussean distribution for the three conventional limits of precision : 1,64; 2,33; and 3,09 respectively. h we are only interested in having at least one individual, and m becomes equal to zero, the formula reduces to : c= m/p o para a = 1 a = { b + b²}² = b² = &#948;2 1- p /p }-----------------(9) n = 1/p n (cor) = n + n´ 2) If p is smaller than 0,1 we may use table 1 in order to find the mean m of a Poisson distribution and determine. n = m: p C) Which is the minimun number of individuals necessary for distinguishing two frequencies p1 and p2? 1) When pl and p2 are values between 0,1 and 0,9 we have: n = { &#948; p1 ( 1-pi) + p2) / p2 (1 - p2) n= 1/p1-p2 }------------ (13) n (cor) We have again to use the unilateral limits of the Gaussean distribution. The correction n' should be used if at least one of the valors pl or p2 has a value between 0,25 and 0,75. A more complicated formula may be used in cases where whe want to increase the precision : n (p1 - p2) &#948; { p1 (1- p2 ) / n= m &#948; = &#948; p1 ( 1 - p1) + p2 ( 1 - p2) c= m / p1 - p2 n = { b2 + 4 4 c }2 }--------- (14) n = 1/ p1 - p2 2) When both pl and p2 are smaller than 0,1 we determine the quocient (pl-r-p2) and procure the corresponding number m2 of a Poisson distribution in table 2. The value n is found by the equation : n = mg /p2 ------------- (15) D) What is the minimun number necessary for distinguishing three or more frequencies, p2 p1 p3. If the frequecies pl p2 p3 are values between 0,1 e 0,9 we have to solve the individual equations and sue the higest value of n thus determined : n 1.2 = {&#948; p1 (1 - p1) / p1 - p2 }² = Fiim n 1.2 = { &#948; p1 ( 1 - p1) + p1 ( 1 - p1) }² } -- (16) Delta represents now the bilateral limits of the : Gaussean distrioution : 1,96-2,58-3,29. 2) No table was prepared for the relatively rare cases of a comparison of threes or more frequencies below 0,1 and in such cases extremely high numbers would be required. E) A process is given which serves to solve two problemr of informatory nature : a) if a special type appears in n individuals with a frequency p(obs), what may be the corresponding ideal value of p(esp), or; b) if we study samples of n in diviuals and expect a certain type with a frequency p(esp) what may be the extreme limits of p(obs) in individual farmlies ? I.) If we are dealing with values between 0,1 and 0,9 we may use table 3. To solve the first question we select the respective horizontal line for p(obs) and determine which column corresponds to our value of n and find the respective value of p(esp) by interpolating between columns. In order to solve the second problem we start with the respective column for p(esp) and find the horizontal line for the given value of n either diretly or by approximation and by interpolation. 2) For frequencies smaller than 0,1 we have to use table 4 and transform the fractions p(esp) and p(obs) in numbers of Poisson series by multiplication with n. Tn order to solve the first broblem, we verify in which line the lower Poisson limit is equal to m(obs) and transform the corresponding value of m into frequecy p(esp) by dividing through n. The observed frequency may thus be a chance deviate of any value between 0,0... and the values given by dividing the value of m in the table by n. In the second case we transform first the expectation p(esp) into a value of m and procure in the horizontal line, corresponding to m(esp) the extreme values om m which than must be transformed, by dividing through n into values of p(obs). F) Partial and progressive tests may be recomended in all cases where there is lack of material or where the loss of time is less importent than the cost of large scale experiments since in many cases the minimun number necessary to garantee the results within the limits of precision is rather large. One should not forget that the minimun number really represents at the same time a maximun number, necessary only if one takes into consideration essentially the disfavorable variations, but smaller numbers may frequently already satisfactory results. For instance, by definition, we know that a frequecy of p means that we expect one individual in every total o(f1-p). If there were no chance variations, this number (1- p) will be suficient. and if there were favorable variations a smaller number still may yield one individual of the desired type. r.nus trusting to luck, one may start the experiment with numbers, smaller than the minimun calculated according to the formulas given above, and increase the total untill the desired result is obtained and this may well b ebefore the "minimum number" is reached. Some concrete examples of this partial or progressive procedure are given from our genetical experiments with maize.

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A presente experiência foi realizada afim de se constatar a influência de dois tipos de milho comerciais, com grãos coloridos de amarelo-laranja, como precursores de vitamina A no crescimento de pintos. Um deles, denominado "Cateto", duro, de côr laranja muito forte e outro, chamado "Armour", dente, de coloração amarelo-laranja. Para testemunha foi empregado o milho "Cristal", duro e branco. Uma análise dos pigmentos dos dois tipos de milho com gráos coloridos mostrou que o milho Cateto, com grãos de coloração laranja forte, tem aproximadamente o dobro de pigmentos, tanto total como quanto a parte ativa em relação à vitamina A, quando comparado com o milho dente amarelo-laranja. Três lotes de pintos de 3 semanas foram utilizados, cada um recebendo a mesma ração onde variava somente o tipo de milho. Nas três primeiras semanas os três lotes reagiram bem, sem quaisquer diferenças apreciáveis. Após a terceira semana, o lote que recebeu milho branco apresentou uma queda sensível de peso dos pintos, os quais apresentaram todos os sinais de avitaminose A. Os outros dois lotes que receberam ração contendo milho de grãos coloridos não apresentaram sinal de avitaminose A. Os resultados obtidos indicam assim que a) o milho "Armour", dente, de grãos amarelo-laranja, embora possua, em relação ao milho "Cateto", duro, de grãos coloridos de laranja forte, cerca da metade da quantidade de pigmentos ativos em relação a formação de vitamina A no organismo animal, é capaz de prevenir a avitaminose, quando empregado em cerca de 70% da ração, b) que a ração contendo o milho "Cristal", duro, de grãos brancos, é deficiente, produzindo uma acentuada avitaminose A, que deverá ser corrigida, na falta de milho de grãos amarelo-laranja, por alimento verde ou outro alimento fornecedor dessa vitamina e c) que sendo o milho "Cateto", mais caro de Cr.$2,00 a 8,00 por saco de 60 quilos, há vantagem econômica no emprego do milho tipo "Armour" na constituição das misturas para aves.