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This study points out its reflections with bigger emphasis in as the period of the philosophical trajectory of Walter Benjamin, identified for Rochlitz as a phase where its writings more incisively place the service of the enrollment politician. We look for to detach of its aesthetic theory of the art the passage of its analysis on the of the politics and the politicalization of the art. The pretension is not to satisfy only with the trades that the aesthetical of the politics and the life they had provoked in the industrialized capitalist countries, but to glimpse the possibilities of emancipation of the individuals. Of this form the trod way passes for a reflection on the philosophy of Walter Benjamin and analysis of the process of destruction of the aura of the arts described in its assay the work of art in the age of its reproducibility technique de1936. Moving away itself of cult order this emancipated art affirms its value of exposition and provokes a new aesthetic perception, of nature collective and not syntonized with the requirements of the society of masses for the processes of urbanization and industrialization. Living in a born in the kingdom time where the barbarity of the war and the totalitarianism politician, Walter Benjamin looks for to print, in its analysis, perspective dialectic in the direction to excite a revolutionary intervention of the masses politicized by means of the cinema and the epic theater and of the widely reproduced art of vanguard. Objective, still, to demonstrate to the prevalence of the aesthetical of the politics anchored in the strong interference of the media in the social life and politics of the democratic societies of market capitalism, characterizing itself for a true aesthetical of the life.

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In this work, we try to develop the question of perception related to the notion of body and meaning in Merleau-Ponty s The Structure of Behaviour (1942). We Attempt to evaluate the way the author considers the problem of perception as a philosophical topic whose origin dates back to his first texts: Work project upon the nature of perception (1933) and Nature of Perception (1934) in which he states the importance of undertaking the matter of perception, specially the body perception. The Classical thinking assesses perception either as an empirical action or as an intellectual one. However Merleau-Ponty s proposal is to show that the action of perception is much deeper and wider than the overflying thought which explains the phenomenon of perception by disregarding the dialectical relation between body and soul, which means to leave out the perceptive subject s vital and existential dimension. Merleau-Ponty s falls back on Gestalttheorie to point out that perception is not a mere operation of the intellect, as it was supposed by the intellectualism. Thus the notions of the perception concept in an integrated way, that is the perception will be possible through a special figure-bottomed structure. This fact means that the matter of perception is related to the body and the meaning and it way be but into three orders: the physical, the vital and the human one. Our research has the purpose of showing that in Merleau-Ponty s view the perception with the help of the body as vehicle of man s being in the world is an origin experience which sets us in touch with concrete world structures, mostly social ones, and that makes the meaning of the perceptive experience possible.

This dissertation treats about the relation between information and action in moral judgments. First of all, we explicit the logical problem, called antinomy, present in the descriptive ethics theories which do not admit the prescriptive factor of the moral judgments. Secondly we present the logical problem, called paradox, present in Austin s linguistic theory (which gave rise to the ethical prescriptivism) that does not admit the descriptive factor of moral judgments. After that, we present Hare s theory as synthesis, which gathers descriptive and prescriptive factors, and, because of this, does not make the same mistakes of the theories previously developed. Although, some critics - Geach, Sen and Azevedo accused Hare of being an existential descriptivist. More precisely, Sen and Geach accused him of being descriptivist, whereas Sen and Azevedo accused him of being existentialist. This work shows that those accusations occur because of the failure in the interpretation of the relation between descriptive and prescriptive factors on Hare s formulation about moral judgments. For the author, the supervenience (which guarantees that the moral choices must be the same when the same factual elements are presented) is the fundament of the universalizability (which guarantees that the moral action must be the same independently of the roles played on the moral action). However, these formulations do not prevent that the author of the moral judgment gather more information and start acting differently, which would not be possible for a descriptivist. Because of this, we formulated a symbolic model, which relates cultural pattern, prescribed pattern and value; and, moreover, which shows the temporal aspects and the change aspects. Another issue is about the necessity of the critical thought, for Hare, in the formulation of universal ethics. So, this work will explicit the reasons why Hare cannot be called existential descriptivist.

This dissertation aims to analyze the philosopher Jürgen Habermas's contributions to issues of human rights and democracy, based on the works Inclusion of the Other, The Post-National Constellation, Law and Democracy. It is intended to show the relevance of the subject both nationally and internationally, against the political, economic and social, that are imposed by today's globalization. This work also aims to demonstrate the importance of actions against the disrespect to human beings and their freedom of participation and emphasize the need to promote the inclusion of those who are marginalized by the system, which colonizes the lifeworld (Lebenswelt). An approach to the origin of human rights is first made since its naturalistic design, through rationalization, confronting the limits of morality, to gain legitimacy in the legal discourse. Next, we seek to examine how we can make the construction of democratic and legitimate rule of law, weaving critical to the deliberative model proposed by Habermas. Then, we suggest alternatives to the participation of citizens in the Legislative, Executive and Judicial. The notion of popular sovereignty in the "post-national" States will be questioned here mainly in relation to the lack of legitimacy in the decisions of supra-state levels and outcome of the agenda of Habermas for inclusion in the formation of a Federation of States. The formation of blocs still seems, however, the mandatory exit to avoid the devastating effects of market, culture and world politics internationalization. Resume, then, Habermas' theory of communicative action and also of the democratic principle, in the scope of peace promotion, face the horrors of war, especially the Iraq war that intensified after the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001. Finally, we discuss the formation of a global society and the effects deriving from it relating to the themes of universalism and relativism of human rights and the difficulties that confront the inclusion of "other."

This dissertation analyzes the conceptions of Jean Jacques Rousseau about religion. It takes as the main reference the text The faith profession of the savoyan vicar which is inserted in the book Emilio or of education. In this work the theism was defined as a natural religion that founded his belief in God having as principle: the natural feelings of the men, the consciousness and reason, and the Christian revelation. In this way, we can conclude that Rousseau was Christian because of the belief that the Bible is truly inspired by God, however, we notice that, for him, the Christian religions foundations are not indispensable to the salvation and the believe in God; for understanding that Supreme being speaks directly to the human heart without the need of mediation proposal by religious institutions. Rousseau still asserts that there is a possibility to know God by other means. Rousseau still asserts that there is a possibility to know God by other means, besides the gospels. Thus it was possible to reach the conclusion that the civil religion, described in the Social Contract, is a propose of a practice religious based on principles of sociability, whose main goal is to bring citizens to love and follow the laws set by the State. However, we notice on this religion traits of the rousseauist theism, and that the theism belief is the base of the citizen religion. As a result of the publication of its religious conceptions, Rousseau was rebuked by valid Christian institutions, in which the main accusation was that he defended an antichristian behavior. This censorship was investigated from the pastoral letter, of the Paris archbishop Christophe de Beaumont and Rousseau s answer letter renowned as Letter to Christophe de Beaumont, in which he claim being Christian, but his beliefs weren t attached to the Church ecclesiastics authority, but were based in his consciousness and reason.

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This article attempts to establish a relationship between the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and the artistic productions of M.C.Escher. Thus, we present a discussion on the concepts of representation, simulacra and event, covering the development of these within the Art and Philosophy. We use the artistic productions of Escher to illustrate the appearance of these productions that are on the limit between the definition and the paradox. We believe that both Deleuze as Escher explored this fissure where the paradoxical forces are held in a double sense that never reaches the final term. These thinkers stepped into this space of intensive forces, however, without be engulfed into an abyss undifferentiated. We will use any thoughts available to establish this connection between Escher and Deleuze, so we will use Geometry, Logic, Art and Philosophy, in search of concepts that can help us in this venture. Finally, through this present study we will show Escher as an artist between the geometry and the abysmal forces of abstract art. He sought in his work what he called "espanto" which, in our view, is the same deleuzian discovery of thought without an image. This paradoxical tension that dissipates offering to the spirit an affection that is unrepresentable, a-significant, but at the same time carries all the possible meanings. This element gives us the birth of impossible objects in the fissure existing in compossibility between worlds incompossible. So we try to show how Escher was an artist able to present these elements in their artistic productions.

Mestre em Filosofia

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This thesis addresses the problem of power and subjection of the subject. We seek to understand how Foucault understands power and its relationship with knowledge, which through its mechanisms acts as a force coercing, disciplining and controlling individuals. For Foucault, in modernity, as they were changing the social, political and economic relations, were also being produced new relations of power, more suited to each age, in every society. The power is exercised in the network and causes individuals to undergo, be subjected. Concurrently, the power, according to Foucault, it is also present in a positive, productive way. To the extent that individuals are transformed into a kind of transmission belt and reproduction, biopower emerges.

This dissertations aims to elucidate the historical background that led to the Sartrean debate about the intellectual, artistic and cultural situation of French at the beginning in the mid-twentieth century. Especially, we do a description of the public Jean-Paul Sartre s (1905-1980) opposition to surrealism, considering this discussion as a bridge to the grounding of the concept of engagement. To this end, we intend to bring a description of the principal concepts of phenomenological ontology and a relation between the aesthetic-ethical dialogue, thus establishing a close connection between philosophy, literature and theater of situations.

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The ways Marcuse points out to the emancipation of society are the study objects of this research. The main objective is to understand the project of society transformation taking the author s criticism to the current system based on the aesthetics and psychoanalysis as the starting point. The investigation begins with the understanding of the origin of society and it tries to explicit both the repressed individual and the repressive society. Marcuse turns to Freud in order to back up his phylogenetic and ontogenetic arguments. The author shows the political characteristic of Freud and the first chapter is about this aspect. It is also necessary to understand both society and the one-dimensional man and what Marcuse suggests with the expression one-dimensional philosophy . In the second chapter, the influence of work, merchandise and language over man will be analyzed. In what follows, it is important to understand how the philosopher perceives art as a revolutionary object to emancipate society and what its real function for the one-dimensional society is. That is the reason why the third chapter will be specifically dedicated to the study of the Marcusean concept of art. The following concepts will be explicit: art in the affirmative culture, contemporary art, art in the one-dimensional society, the social role of art, Marxist aesthetics, the aesthetic dimension principles. The fourth chapter ponders the political principles to a revolution through art. When presenting the political principles, it is possible to understand Marcuse s project that he called The New Left. Therefore, presenting all of the arguments that support The New Left is a revolutionary political project that makes the emancipation of society possible.

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L objectif de cette recherche est d étudier la notion d epiméleia heautou ( souci de soi ) dans le dialogue platonicien Alcibiade. L epiméleia heautou représente un fait unique dans l histoire de la pensée philosophique: bien qu elle ait été l'une des principaux piliers de la philosophie antique, elle a été totalement oubliée à partir de la modernité, devient un phénomène pratiquement inconnu aujourd hui. Il a été Michel Foucault qui a récupéré cette notion, en soulignant la proéminence que le souci de soi a obtenu pendant une période de plus de mille ans d histoire. Le dialogue Alcibiade est considéré un texte fondamental pour l étude de l epiméleia heautou, car il serait à la fois que debut philosophique, le moment privilégié où le souci de soi prend la forme d'une théorie complète: prendre souci de soi, d áprès Platon, c est prendre souci de l'âme, et ça serait la tâche fondamental de l'existence humaine. Mais malgré l'importance de souci de soi dans l'Alcibiade, il y aurait, selon Foucault, une ambiguïté de Platon en ce qui concerne l epiméleia, car d'une part, le texte renforce l'importance de souci de soi , d'autre part, il le soumet à la connaissance de soi . L hypothèse de ce travail est que la liaison entre souci et connaissance est née comme quelque chose d'inhérent à la philosophie de Platon, depuis qu on cherche la compréhension de son projet philosophique, ainsi que ses elaborées procédures méthodologiques. Ce que Foucault identifie comme problème , pour nous est un des éléments clés de la philosophie platonicienne: la liaison entre l'éthique et l épistémologie sous l'égide métaphysique. Ainsi, à partir de l'étude directe de l'Alcibiade, nous mettrons en évidence le mouvement et le théâtre caractéristique des textes platoniciens, pour ensuite proposer une clé herméneutique qui comprend l'unité organique de l'oeuvre de Platon. Cette approche permettra une lecture non linéaire ou analytique du texte, mais une lecture protreptique et proleptique, capable de mettre en évidence les multiples relations qui l epiméleia heautoû dans l Alcibiade a avec les différents domaines de la connaissance et de l'activité humaine. Cette procédure va enfin émerger de l'axe autour duquel Platon organise sa philosophie toute entière: le Bien.

The purpose of the present study is to analyze the distinction between the concept of freedom in a negative sense and that of freedom in a positive sense, also emphasizing the concepts Kant uses as a basis for morality under the idea of freedom in a positive sense. In the first chapter we analyze the Kantian thesis that only through a good will would there be the possibility of acting morally. Kant holds good will as a principle of volition, which must be determined in itself and which must be independent of any driving force mobile. This independence in relation to the empirical and contingent allows Kant to base morality on formal principles; in other words, reason formulates a priori unconditional moral laws, which determine the human will to act through duty. An action practiced through duty does not mean simply submission of reason to the a priori law, but renders the freedom of the will effective, for the will as a faculty of reason, upon formulating laws for itself, recognizes its freedom in the laws. In the second chapter of this work, we analyze the difference between acting in accordance with duty and acting through duty. Acting in accordance with duty always expresses an action that is not in keeping with the basis of morality. But an action practiced through duty requires that the will be determined by purely formal principles, that is, principles that must contain legislation that could never be extracted from the world of phenomena. The morality of an action lies in the unconditional character of the law and in the a priori form of the moral law. Thus, from the practical point of view, every human action must be commanded according to an internal need, free of any influx of experience. This need must be imposed by a purely rational law, of an unconditional character. In the third chapter, we seek to analyze the distinction between freedom in a negative sense and freedom in a positive sense. Based on this distinction, we proceed to analyze what properties of freedom are required for a universally valid morality. Once the properties of autonomy, of a priori and of the unconditionality of law are understood of freedom in a positive sense, Kant seems to indicate the possibility of demonstrating the objective reality of freedom, namely moral law. For if the will must be compelled by a categorical imperative, it must likewise be possible to indicate the existence of the law whose principles must be valid for all rational beings.

La recherche de donner un sens à la vie touche à l'homme sur la nécessité de definir leurs bases. L'objectif sera de définir la personne de Jean-Jacques Rousseau, qui devient une proposition de reprendre le texte du philosophe, et les amener à ladiscussion contemporaine sur ce que l'on entend par personne. La voie choisie pour la définition commence par l'établissement de la liberté, ses concepts fondamentaux, la définition de la vraie liberté qui n'a de sens que si elle est dans la société. Puis la recherche est pour la manipulation de la transition de l'homme de l'état de nature à l'état social, cette transition signifie qu'il éclate la nécessité pour la connaissance de soi, et la formation de préceptes qui sont ancrées dans la dynamique sociale, ce qui rend l'analyse au-delà humanistes des moules, d'insertion, notamment la définition de conscience et d'opinion, dans le cadre de la personne.

This dissertation presents the results of our investigation on the experience of otherness proposed by Gabriel Marcel, a French thinker named Christian existentialist by Jean-Paul Sartre. Marcel understands the existent I as a singular reality. Human being is an existent marked by mystery, which can t be completely revealed or systematized. The existent is a concrete subject, a human being placed into the world. In the world he must to meet other people, traveling companions, also real and concrete. The meeting occupies a prominent role in Marcel s thinking. The existent I needs the look of the other in order to know himself and to discover the life s meaning. Intersubjective experience is a condition for meeting the other. Marcel presents three virtues (ontological requirement) for accessing individual being and consequent meeting the Absolute Being: these virtues are Love, Hope and Fidelity and, per si, demonstrate the capital importance of the other. The experience requires the coexistence and the recognition of the other. The study also presents the results of our investigation of Marcel s thinking on otherness theme in three chapters. In the first one, named The mystery of being ontological questions , we address the issue of Being as a mystery which must be revealed in life; we consider the incarnate being and the transcendence requirement. In the second chapter, The experience of otherness we reflect on the importance of meeting and the ontological requirements of Love, Hope and Fidelity in order the existent I to know himself, the other and the Absolute Other. Finally, in the third chapter, The otherness question , we draw a parallel between the otherness conceptions in Marcel, Sartre and Buber. We analyze the method proposed by Marcel as well how he can contribute to building a more just and fraternal society.

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